Tools & Technology: Evolution of the Long, White Cane

Evolution of the Cane

While a cane of some sort has often been associated with blindness in history, literature, and art, the long, white cane and its use as an independent mobility device is a twentieth century invention, coming into wide use as a result of World War II.

Walking Sticks and Crooked Canes

For many years, those blind people who used a cane relied on a whatever type of cane was available, such as walking sticks, for assistance. A common type of cane that began to appear in the twentieth century was the short, support cane. These canes are about waist-high and curve at the top. No formal methods on use or instruction for travel was developed for this cane. This type of cane is now more commonly used as an aid only by those who have difficulty walking as a result of physical mobility problems. 

In this image the cane on the bottom is a wooden walking stick that was later painted white and fitted with a metal tip. It has a dark wood handle and is is 36 inches long. This walking stick appears homemade from a tree branch. It is shown with a modern Iowa cane for size comparison. (The Iowa cane is 58 inches long).

Identification Canes

The movement to promote white canes as a symbol of blindness began in Europe and spread in America by the Lion’s Club International in the 1930s. The white color was regarded as being easier for motorists and others to see, alerting them that the individual holding the cane is blind. Increasingly, the crooked or walking canes were painted white if they were given to a blind person. Yet, as noted above, canes were not widely used by the blind for independent travel. The white cane was expected to be used as a item of identification only, to indicate that the person holding the cane is blind. These canes were usually short so that they could simply be held in the hand, without contact on the ground. The cane often retained a crook so that the person could hook the cane around his or her arm or in a shirt collar if they needed use of both hands. Some canes had straps so that they could be secured around the arm.

During this time, many blind persons rejected the cane because it did identify them as blind, and to be a blind person in the early to mid-twentieth century meant being considered dependent, helpless, and discriminated against.

In this image the cane on the bottom is an identification cane known as an "Arkansas Traveler". This type of cane was meant to be held as a form of identification. It is made of wood, has a leather strap, and is 37.5 inches long. It is shown with a modern Iowa cane for size comparison. (The Iowa cane is 58 inches long.)

In this image the cane on the bottom is an example of a crooked, white identification cane. It is made of wood, with the bottom 1/3 painted red, and retrofitted with a rubber cap to prevent slippage. This crooked cane is 41 inches long. It is shown with a modern Iowa cane for size comparison. (The Iowa cane is 58 inches long.)

Modern Canes

The widespread use of the straight, white cane coincided with the development of formal methods of travel instruction, known as Orientation and Mobility training. As veterans blinded during World War II were returning home, staff from the U.S. Veteran’s Administration worked to develop a better method for independent mobility. Many servicemen, both those who were wounded and those who were to help them, felt the armed services needed to develop a better method to allow these newly blinded men to be more independent.  

During this time, the cane was lengthened and lightened and individuals were taught to arch the cane from side-to-side to increase the area of detection. They were also taught to tap the cane to produce an echo effect which would allow the blind person to use sounds to obtain clues about the structures around them. For instance, hallways, door openings, and different types of surfaces produce different sounds that help blind cane users to orient themselves to their surroundings. Soldiers learning cane travel were required to wear sleepshades to block out any remaining vision they had so that they would learn to rely on the cane and their senses of hearing, touch, and even smell. Richard Hoover is recognized as the developer of this approach at the Valley Forge General Hospital (Phoenixville, PA) in the 1940s. The "Hoover Method" was not embraced by all training sites; however, it was used widely at the Hines VA hospital in Illinios.

In this image the cane on the bottom is an example of the cane developed by the Veterans Administration after World War II. It is made of aluminum, has a small, red crook handle, and a plastic tip. The bottom six inches of the cane is painted red. The cane is 56 inches long. It is shown with a modern Iowa cane for size comparison. (The Iowa cane is 58 inches long.)

With practice, this simple device allowed a blind person to go anywhere he or she wanted alone. The long, white cane provided a level of independence that at one time was not seen as either advisable or achievable. For the last half-century, blind persons have proved that a cane is an effective tool for traveling to not only school and work, but to the the beach, mall, ballgame, church, and on and on.

More and more blind persons came to accept the white cane as its use was encouraged as a tool of independence and as social attitudes towards blind persons began to improve. Yet, misconceptions continue to exist, and some blind persons continue to feel the stigma and discrimination associated with blindness when carrying their cane.

Iowa Cane

When Kenneth Jernigan became director of the then called Iowa Commission for the Blind in 1958, he introduced a version of the cane which came to be known as the Iowa Cane. This cane was constructed of fiberglass, had a green plastic handle, and a metal tip on the end. The length of the cane depends on the person's height. The top of the cane should reach a person's chin. This fiberglass construction improves the production of sounds over the aluminum canes which were widely used at that time. These simple but effective canes are still distributed by the Iowa Department for the Blind.

This image shows a modern Iowa cane that measures 58 inches long. Modern cane sizes vary depending on the height of the person using it. 

Other modern canes

Over time, more options became available to accommodate personal preferences. Folding canes and telescoping canes provide the cane user with an option for easy storage while not walking about.
 

The three images above show a folding when cane extended, segmented, and completely folded for storage.

The two images above show a telescoping cane extended and collapsed for storage.
 

Homemade or improvised canes continued to be used by some people.

In this image the cane on the bottom is a homemade cane made from a white curtain rod. It is outfitted with a green, plastic grip and a rubber tip. This homemade cane is 43 inches long. It is shown with a modern Iowa cane for size comparison. (The Iowa cane is 58 inches long.)

All canes pictured above are from the Iowa Blind History archive at the Iowa Department for the Blind.

Want to Learn More?

Learn more about the history of the white cane and the development of Orientation and Mobility instruction by reading these resources:

http://www.njcounciloftheblind.org/brochures/history_of_white_cane.htm

http://www.lionsclubs.org/EN/common/pdfs/iad413.pdf

Ferguson, Ronald J. The Blind Need Not Apply: A History of Overcoming Prejudice in the Orientation and Mobility Profession. Charlotte, NC. Information Age Publishing, 2007.

The Iowa Blind History archive has a number historical materials and articles related to orienation and mobility, including information about restrictions on using canes on airplanes, travel training articles such as "Techniques of Travel with the Long Cane" and "Mobility Training for the Older Blind: A Common Sense Approach", and films from the 1960s and 1970s demonstrating and discussing cane travel.